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（英语词:匚学）English Lexicology（词汇学）Lexicology:is abranch oflinguistics,inquiring into the originsand meanings ofwords.The Natureand Scopeof English lexicology:Englishlexicologyaims atinvestigating andstudying themorphological structuresof Englishwords and wordequivalents,their semantic structures,relations,historical development,formation and usages.The subjectsthat English Lexicology correlatedwith andextent to:（形态学）,English Lexicologyis correlatedwith suchlinguistic disciplinesas morphology）（语义学），（词源学）,（文体论（词典学）semantics etymologystylistics andlexicographyThe reasonfor astudent tostudy Englishlexicology:According to the textbook,EnglishLexicologywill definitelybe beneficialfor studentsof English.A goodknowledge ofmorphological structuresof Englishwordsandrules ofwordformation willhelplearners developtheir personalvocabulary andconsciously increase their wordpower.Theinformation of the historicaldevelopment and the principlesof classificationwill givethem adeeperunderstanding ofword-meaning and enable themto organize,classify andstore wordsmoreeffectively.The understandingand theirsense relationswill graduallyraise theirawarenessof meaning andusage,andenablethem usewords moreaccurately andappropriately.A workingknowledge ofdictionaries willimprove theirskills ofusing referencebooksand raisetheir problem-solving abilityand efficiencyof individualstudy.Chapter1-Basic conceptsof wordsand vocabulary（词的定义）:Word Aword is a minimal free form of a language thathas a given sound and（）（）（）meaning andsyntactic function.l aminimalfreeformof a language2a soundunity3（）a unitof meaning4a formthat canfunction alonein asentenceSound and meaning（声音与意义）almost arbitrary,uno logicalrelationship between thesound whichstands for a thingor anidea and the actualthing andidea itself”（读音和形式）不统一的四个原因（）Sound andform1the Englishalphabet was adopted（）from theRomans,which does not havea separateletter torepresent eachother2the（）pronunciation haschanged morerapidly thanspelling overthe years3some of the difference（）were createsby theearly scribes4the borrowingsis animportant channelof enrichingtheEnglish vocabulary）（词源）20ne importantcriterion is to seetheir etymologyHomonymys arefrom differentsources.Polysemant isfrom the same source.）（语义关联）3The secondprinciple considerationis semanticrelatedness Thevarious meaningsofpolysemant arecorrelated andconnected toone centralmeaning.Meanings ofdifferenthomonymys havenothing to do withone another.In dictionaries,a polysemanthas its meaningall listedunder oneheadword whereashomonyms arelisted asseparate entries.（同形同音异义词的修辞特色）Rhetoric featuresof homonymsAs homonymsare identical insound or spelling,particularly homophones,they areoften employedto createpuns fordesiredeffect of,say,humor,sarcasm orridicule.（同义关系）Synonymy oneof two or morewords in the English language whichhave thesameor verynearly the same essentialmeaning.（同义词的类别）:Types ofSynonymy（）（完全同义词）:1Absolute synonymsalso known as completesynonyms are words whichareidenticalin meaning in all aspects,i.e.both ingrammatical meaning and lexicalmeaning,including conceptualand associativemeanings.[Absolute synonyms are restrictedto highlyspecializedvocabulary inlexicology.]（）（相对同义词）2relative synonyms:also callednear-synonymsaresimilar ornearly thesamein denotation,but embracedifferent shadesof meaningor differentdegrees of a given（）quality.e.g:change/alter/vary,stagger/reel/totter,strange/odd/queer,idle/lazy/indolent（同义词的来源）:Sources ofsynonyms）（借词）:最重要的来源（l Borrowingroom-chamber,foe-enemy,help-aid,leave-depart,）wise-sage,buy-purchase）（方言和地区英语）2Dialects andregional English）（单词的修饰和委婉使用方3Figurative andeuphemistic useof words:去）:occupation/profession-walk oflife,dreamer-star-gazer,drunk-elevated,lie-distort offact.）（与习惯体现一致）4Coincidence withidiomatic expressions:win-gain theupper hand,decide-make upones mind,finish-get through,hesitate-be intwo minds,help-lend onea hand.Discrimination ofSynonyms夕卜延不一样,1difference indenotation Synonymsmay differ in therange and intensityof meaning.rich-wealthy,work-toil,want-wish-desire内，函不——样.2difference inconnotation Byconnotation wemean thestylistic andemotivecolouring of words.Some wordsshare the same denotationbut differin theirstylistic借词appropriateness.answer-respond,storm-tempest,wood-forest,handy-manual,,中z性词unlike-dissimilar,homely-domestic,fleshy-carnal policeman-constable-bobby-cop,古语词、诗歌ask-beg-request.ire/anger,bliss-happiness,forlorn-distresses,dire-dreadful,list-listen,enow-enough,save-expect,mere-lake3difference inapplication.Many words are synonymousin meaningbut differencein usage insimple terms.They formdifferent collocationsand fitinto differencesentence patterns,allow sb.todo sth.-let sb.dosth./answer the letter-reply to theletter反义关系Antonymy:it isconcerned withsemantic opposition.Antonyms can be definedaswords which are oppositein meaning.Types ofAntonyms:矛盾反义词lcontradictory termsthese antonymstruly representoppositeness of meaning.
①②特点The assertionof oneis thedenial of the other.Such antonymsare non-gradable.They cannot be used in comparativedegrees anddo notallow adverbsof intensitylike verytoqualify them.e.g:single/married又寸立反义词:2contrary termsantonyms ofthis typeare bestviewed interms of a scalerunningbetween twopoles orextremes.e.g:old/young,rich/young,big/small Thetwoopposites are gradable andone existsin comparisonwith theother.关系反义词:3relative termsthis typeconsists ofrelational opposites.parent/child,husband/wife,employee/employer,sell/buy,receive-give反义关系的特点Some of the characteristics of antonyms语义对立lantonyms areclassified onthe basis of semanticopposition2a word which hasmore thanone meaningcan havemore thanone antonym语义内涵3antonyms differin semanticinclusion4contrary termsaregradableantonyms,differing indegree ofintensity,so eachhas itsowncorresponding opposite.hot/warm:hot-cold/warm-cool反义词的使用The useof antonyms1Antonyms arehelpful andvaluable indefining the meaning of words.2To expresseconomically theopposite ofa particularthought for the sakeof contrast.e.g:now敌友，哀乐or never,rain orshine,friend orfoe wealand woe对比法3To formantithesis to achieve emphasisby puttingcontrasting ideatogether,proverbs andsayings:easy come,easy go./more haste,less speed.上下义关系Hyponymy Hyponymydeals with the relationshipof semanticinclusion.Theameaning ofmore specificword is included inthat of another moregeneral word.For example,a catis hyponymof animal上义词和下义词Superordinate andSubordinate usesubordinates which are concreteandprecise presentinga vividverbal picturebefore thereader.Superordinates whichconveyonly ageneral andvague idea.语义场Semantic FieldViewingthe totalmeaning inthis wayis thebasisoffield theory.e.g.apple,pear,peach,date,mango,orange,lemon,etc.make up the semanticfield offruitsThe semanticfield of the sameconcept maynot have the samemembers indifferent language.父亲的姐姐，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子〃e.g.aunt inEnglish,may meansin Chinese.122词义的演变Chapter7Changes inWord MeaningVocabulary is the most unstableelement ofa languageas it is undergoingconstant changesboth in form and content.Comparatively thecontent iseven moreunstable thanthe form.词义变化的种类Types ofChanges词义的扩大
1.Extension/generalization is the namegiven to the wideningof meaningwhichsome wordsundergo.It isa process by whichoriginally hada specializedmeaning hasnowbecome generalized.e.g:manuscript,fabulous,picture,mill,journal,bonfire,butcher,companion词义的缩
2.Narrowing/specialization h:is theopposite ofwidening meaning.It isaprocess bywhicha word ofwide meaningacquires anarrower or specialized sense.In otherwords,a word which used to havea moregeneral sensebecomes restrictedin itsapplication（and conveysa specialmeaning inpresent-day English.e.g:deer,corn,garage,liquor,meat,）disease,poison,wife,accident,girl.[when acommon wordis turnedinto aproper noun,themeaning isnarrowed accordingly.]（词义的升华）:
3.Elevation/amelioration refers to theprocessbywhich wordsrise from（粗陋的）humble beginningsto positionsof importance,[nice,marshal,constable,angel,knight,earl,governor,fond,minister,chamberlain]（词义的降格）:
4.Degradation/pejoration Aprocess wherebywords ofgood originfall into（贬损的）ill reputationor non-affective wordscome to usedinderogatory sense,[boor,churl,wench,hussy,villain,silly,knave,lewd,criticize,lust]（词义的转移）指明
5.Transfer Wordswhich wereusedtodesignate onething butlaterchanged tomean somethingelse haveexperienced theprocess of semantic transfer.（词义变化的原因）Causes ofSemantic Change・（词义演变的语言外部原因）LExtra linguisticfactors）（历史原因）1Historical reasonIncreased scientificknowledge anddiscovery,objects,institutions,ideas change in thecourse of time.E.g:pen,car,computer.））（阶级原因）:2Class reasonThe attitudeof classeshave alsomade inroadsinto lexicalmeaning in thecase ofelevation ordegradation.）心理原因）:3Psychological reasonthe associatedtransfer ofmeaningandeuphemistic useofwordsareoften dueto psychologicalfactors.Such slow,humble anddespised occupationstakemore appealingnames isall dueto psychologicalreasons.（语言内部原因）Z.Linguistic factors:the changeofmeaningmay becaused byinternalfactors within the language system.）缩略:l shortinggold-gold medal,gas-coal gas,bulb-light bulb,private-private soldier）借用:2borrowing deer-animal-beast）类推3analogy词义和语境Chapter8Meaning andContextContext inits traditionalsense refersto thelexical itemsthat precedeor followagivenword.Modern linguistshave broadenedits scopeto includeboth linguisticand extra-linguisticcontexts.（语境的种类）Two typesof context（非语言语境）
1.Extra-linguistic context/Non-linguistic situationIn abroad sense,context includesthe physicalsituation aswell,which embracesthe people,time,place,and even（）the wholecultural background,look out,weekend,landlord（语言语境）
2.Linguistic context/grammatical contextIn anarrow sense,it referstothe words,clauses,sentences in whicha word appears.It maycover aparagraph,a whole■分为两类chapter andeven theentire book）（词匚语境）1Lexical context5:It refersto the word thatoccurs togetherwith the word in（）question,e.g:paper,do）（语）去语境）2Grammatical context:It refersthe situationwhen the meaning ofawordmay（）be influencedby the structure in which itoccurs,e.g:become（语境的作用）The roleof context（消除歧义）
1.Elimination ofambiguity）1Ambiguity dueto polysemyor homonymy.）2Grammatical structurecan alsolead toambiguity
①②怎样消除歧义-------extend theoriginal sentencealter thecontext alittle（限定所指）
2.1ndication ofreferents
①②怎样限定所指？-----with clearcontext withadequate verbalcontext（提供线索以猜测词义）
3.Provision ofclues forinferring word-meaning）l definition）2explanation）3example）4synonymy）5antonymy）（上下义关系）6hyponymy）7relevant details）8word structure英语习语Chapter9English Idioms（习语的定义）Idioms:are expressionsthat are not readilyunderstandable from their literal（俗meaning ofindividual elements.In abroad sense,idiom mayinclude colloquialisms语）,（口号）,（俚语）,（谚语）Catchphrases slangexpressions proverbs,etc.They formanimportant part of the English vocabulary.（英语习语的特点）Characteristics ofIdioms（语意的整体性）
1.5emantic unity:words in the idiomthey havelost theirindividual identity.Their meanings arenotoften recognizablein themeaning of the wholeidiom.The semanticunity of idioms isalso reflectedin theillogical relationship between theliteralmeaning ofeach of the idiom.（构造的稳定性）:
1.6tructural stabilitythestructureof anidiom istoalarge extentunchangeable.）1the constituentsof idiomscannot bereplaced）2the wordorder cannot be invertedor changed）3the constituentsof idiomscannotbedeleted oradded to,not evenan article.）4many idiomsare grammaticallyunchangeable,习语性体现习惯The fixityofidiomdepends onthe idiomaticity（英语习语的分类）Classification ofIdioms名词性习语（累赘物）
1.idioms nominalin naturewhite elephant形容词性习语（）
2.idioms adjectivalin natureas pooras achurch mouse动词性习语（）
3.idioms verbalin naturelook into副词性习语（拼命）
4.idioms adverbialin naturetooth andnail句式习语（）
5.sentence idiomsnever dothings byhalves（习语的使用）Use ofidioms（文体色彩）
1.Stylistic features）（俗语）1colloquialisms俚语2slang书面体现3literary expressions才旨派The sameidiom mayshow stylisticdifferences whenit isassigned differentmeanings.修辞色彩
2.Rhetorical features语音处理:1phonetic manipulation头韵法1alliteration尾韵法2rhyme词法处理2lexical manipulation同义词并举1reiterationduplication ofsynonyms[scream andshout]反复2repetition[out andout]反义词并置3juxtaposition ofantonyms[here andthere]修辞格
3.figures ofspeech明喻1simile暗喻2metaphor换喻/以名词代动作3metonymy liveby onespen提喻/以部分代整体4synecdoche earnones bread拟人法5Personification委婉语6Euphemism kickthe bucketdie夸张:7hyperbole aworld oftrouble习语的变异形式Variations ofidioms增长l.addition替代
3.replacement位置转移
4.position-shifting分解
5.dismembering英语字典Chapter10English DictionariesDictionary:presents inalphabetical orderthe words of English,with information as to their语spelling pronunciation,meaning,usage,rules andgrammar,andinsome,their etymology源.词典的种类Types ofdictionaries单语词典和双语词典最早的词典都是双语的l.Monolingualbilingual dictionaries
1.Monolingual dictionary:is written in onelanguage LDCE,CCELD.The headwordor entriesaredefined andillustrated in thesamelanguage.
2.Bilingual dictionary:involve twolanguages ANew English-Chinese D,A Chinese-EnglishD语文词典与百科词典Z.Linguistic andEncyclopedic dictionaries1Linguistic dictionary:aim atdefining wordsand explainingtheir usagesin thelanguage可以是单spelling,pronunciation,meaning,grammatical,function,usage andetymology etc.语或是双语的2Encyclopedic dictionary:百科全书:自身1encyclopedia is not concernedwiththelanguage persebut providesencyclopedicinformation.Concerning eachheadword notpronunciation,meanings,or usagesbutonly information.2Encyclopedic Dictionaries:havethecharacteristicsofboth linguisticD andencyclopedia〈Chambers EncyclopedicEnglish Dictionary大型词典.案头词典、袖珍词典
3.Unabridged,desk andpocket dictionaries-------1Unabridged D:basic informationabout aword itsorigin,meaning,同词源的,pronunciation,cognates usage,grammatical,function,spelling,hyphenation,（同音异意）〈capitalization,derived forms,synonyms andhomonyms WebstersThird NewInternationalDictionary（）2Desk D:medium-sized[50,000-150,000]（）只有拼写、发音和最重要的意义，很少或者几乎不举例3Pocket D:about50,000entriesor fewer（专用词典）
4.Specialized dictionariesconcentrateona particular areaof languageor knowledge,treating suchdiverse topicsasetymology,synonyms,idioms,pronunciation,usageinlanguage,and computer,engineering,literature anda varietyof othersubjects.（词典的使用）Use of the dictionaries1read thecontents pageto findout quicklywhat information isincludedin the dictionary2read theguide to the useofthedictionary（词典的内容）Content ofthedictionary
1.spelling
2.pronunciation
3.definition
4.usage
5.grammar使用注释和语言注释
6.usage notesand languagenotes词源彳言，息
7.etymological information补充事项
8.supplementary matter
9.（本常用字典）Three goodgeneral dictionaries3（）（）《朗
1.Longman dictionaryof contemporaryEnglish LDCEnew edition1987文现代英语词典》新版特性
①②③dear grammarcodes usagenotes languagenotes《科林斯合作英语词
2.Collins COBUILDEnglishlanguagedictionary CCELD1987典》特性
②Ddefinition-in fullsentences extracolumn-deal withgrammar
③information usageexamples-to showits meaningsand usages《汉英字典修订
3.A Chinese-English dictionaryrevised editionCED1995版》首版年19781has anaddition of800single characterentries andof18000multicharacterentries includingcatchphrases,sayings andproverbs.2revised someold entries3keeps theprevious alphabeticalorder ofentries,which makesthe dictionaryeasytouse4boasts ofthe qualityoftheEnglish equivalentsit providesfor itsChinese items.（司:匚）Vocabularyi:all the words inalanguagemake upits vocabularyClassificationof EnglishWords:By usefrequency:basic word stocknonbasic vocabularyBynotion:content wordsfunctional wordsBy origin:native wordsborrowedwords（基本词汇）The basicwordstockis thefoundation ofthe vocabularyaccumulated overcenturiesand forms the commoncore ofthelanguage.Though itconstitute asmall percentageofthe EV,itis themost important partof vocabulary.（基本词汇的特性）The FundamentalFeatures ofthe BasicWord Stock）（全民通用性））（相对稳定性）1AII-National charactermostimportant2Stability）））（多产性）（多义性））（可搭配性3Productivity4Polysemy5Collocability（⑶没有上述特性的（）（术语））（行话）（俚语）（）words:l Terminology2Jargon slang4）（（暗语）（）（方言）（古语）（）（新Argot5Dialectal words6Archaisms7Neologisms词语）:Neologisms meansnewly-created wordsor expressions,or wordsthat havetaken onnew（）meanings.email实词（）Content words/notional wordscloud,run walk,never,five,frequently and虚词（）functionalwords/empty wordson,of,and,be,butNative Wordsand BorrowedWords）（本族语词（）Native words:knownasAnglo-Saxon words50,000-60,000,are wordsbrought（）to Britainin the5th centuryby theGermanic tribes,mainstream ofthe basicword-stocks.Two（）（）other features:l neutralin style2frequent inuse（外来语词）（Borrowed words/Loan words:words takenover fromforeign languages.80%）of modernEV4Types ofloan words:）（同化词）（（））1denizens shirtfrom skyrtaON）（非同化词/夕卜来词）2aliens:are borrowedwords whichhave retainedtheir original（（）磕头）pronunciation andspelling kowtowCH）（译借词）:按其他语言方式构成英语（）3translation loanslong timeno seefrom China）（借义词）4semantic loans:they arenot borrowedwith referencetotheform,but theirmeaningsare borrowedChapter2the developmentoftheEnglish Vocabulary印欧语系The Indo-European LanguageFamily大印欧语群The EightGroups inIndo-European Familyof Languages8The Easternset:波罗的-斯拉夫语族:1The Balto-slavic GroupRussian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc.印度-伊朗语族:2The Indo-Iranian GroupHindi,Bengali,Persian etc.亚美尼亚语族3The ArmenianGroupArmenian.阿尔巴尼亚语族:4The AlbanianGroupAlbanian.The Westernset:古希腊语族:5The HellenicGroupGreek.意大利语族:6The ItalianGroupLatin,Romance languagesFrench,Italian,Spanish,Portuguese,Romanian etc.凯尔特语族7The CelticGroupIrish,Welsh,Breton etc.日耳曼语族:8The GermanicGroup Flemish,German,Dutch,ScandinavianNorweigian,Swedish,Danish,Icelandic etc.The ThreeStages ofDevelopment oftheEnglishVocabulary:1Old English450-1100vocabulary50,000to60,000:was Ihigh inflectedlanguage.2Middle English1150-1500:retaines muchfewer inflections3Modern English1500-up tonow:in factmore than25%of modernE wordscome almostdirectlyfrom classicallanguages.In ModernE,words endingswere mostlylost withjust afewexpections.English hasevolved froma syntheticlanguageOld Englishtothepresent analyticlanguage.词汇的发展模式Modes ofVocabulary Development发明新词lcreation the formation of new words by usingthe existingmaterials,namely最重要方式toots,affixes andother elements.旧词新义2semantic change:doesnotincreasethenumber ofword formsbut createmanymore newuseages ofthewords.借用夕卜来词:4borrowing constitutemerely6to7percent ofall new wordsReviving wordsor obsoletewords alsocontributes tothe growthof Englishvocabulary thoughquiteinsignificant.Chapter3Word FormationI（司素）:Morpheme ithe smallestfunctioning unitinthecomposition ofwords（词素变体）AHomorph isa differentvariant formofamorpheme,differinphonological andspellingform,but at thesamein functionandmeaning（词素的分类）Type ofMorpheme（）（自由词素）:1Free Morphemeshave completemeaninginthemselves andcan beusedas freegrammatical unitsin sentences.A freemorpheme isone thatcan standby itself,（）independent.（）（粘着语素）2Bound MorphemeA boundmorpheme isone thatcannot standby itself.（）（粘附词根）（）（词缀）Bound Morphemeincludes twotypes:1bound root2AffixAffixes can be putinto twogroups:）（屈折词缀）:l Inflectionalaffixes affixesattached tothe endofwordsto indicategrammaticalrelationships areinflectional,thus knownas inflectional morphemes.）（派生词缀）））2Derivational affixesA prefix:A prefixcomes beforewords.B suffix:An adjective（形容词后缀）suffix that is addedtothestem,whatever classis belongsto,the resultwill beanadjective.（自由词根）Free Morpheme=free rootY（词素）MorphemeBound rootCprefix r「[bound de^yationalaffix suffix^inflectional（词根和词干）Root and stemThe differencesbetween rootandstem:A rootis thebasic formofawordwhichcannotbefurther analyzedwithout totalloss ofidentity.A stemis thesurplus partafter thecutting ofinflectionalmorphemeinaword withinflectionalmorphemes,canbefurther analyzed,it sometimescould bea root.构词法Chapter4Word-Formation11词缀法派生法l.Affixation Derivationthe formation ofwords by addingword-formaing orderivationalaffixes tostem.前缀法:1Prefixation Its theformation ofnew words byadding aprefixes to stems.否认前缀lNegative prefixesun-,non-,in-,dis,a-,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobeynot obey逆反前缀:2Reversative prefixesun-,de-,dis-etc.unwrapopen贬义前缀:3Pejorative prefixes:mismis-,mal-,pseudo-etc.misconductbad behaviour程度前4Prefixes ofdegree orsize缀:arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect.zoverweight页向态度前缀5Prefixes oforientation andattitude4:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro-etc.anti-nuclear方位前缀6Locative prefixes:extra-,fore-Jnter-Jntra-,tele-,trans-,etc.extraordinarymorethan ordinary时间和次序前缀7Prefixes oftime andorder:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re-etc.monorailone rail数字前缀8Number prefixes:uni-,mono-,bi-,di-,tri-,multi-,poly-,semi-,etc.bilingualconcerning twolanguages混杂前缀:9Miscellaneous prefixesauto-,neo-,pan-,vice-.vice-chairmandeputy chairman后缀劣去:2SuffixationIts theformation ofa newword byadding suffixestostems.lnoun suffixes2adjective suffixes3Adverb suffixes4verb suffixes复合法21Compounding alsocalled compositionCompounding:is theformation ofnew wordsby joiningtwoormore stems连写带连字符Compounds arewritteninthree ways:solid airmail,hyphenated air-分开写conditioningand openair force,air raid复合词的形式Formation ofcompounds1noun compounds:e.g.:air+plane=airplane,flower+pot=flower pot2adjective compounds:e.g,add+head=acid-head3verb compounds:e.g.house+keep=housekeep转类法
3.Conversion功Conversion:is theformationofnewwordsby convertingwordsof one classto anotherclass.能转换，又叫零派生.functional shift/zero-derivation拼缀法
4.BlendingBlending:is theformationofnewwordsby combiningparts oftwo wordsoraword plusa partofanother word,e.g:motor+hotel=motel,smoke+fog=smog,formula+translation=FORTRAN截短法
5.ClippingClipping:istoshorten alonger wordby cuttingapartoff theoriginal andusing whatremains四种形式instead.e.g.plane fromairplane,phone fromtelephone.删节前面
1.Front clippingsphone fromtelephone册节背面
2.Back dippingsdorm fromdormitory前后删节
3.Front andback clippingsflu frominfluenza短语删节
4.Phrase clippingspop frompopular music首字母缩写法
6.AcronymyAcronymy:is theprocess offorming newwordsbyjoining theinitial lettersof namesof socialandpolitical organizationsorspecialnoun phrasesand technicalterms.首字母缩写词法:1Initialism initialismsarewordspronounced letterby letter.e.g.:BBCfor BritishBroadcasting corporation首字母拼音:去2Acronym:Acronyms arewords formedfrom initialletters butpronouncedas anormal word.E.g.:TEFLteaching Englishasaforeign language逆生法，逆构词
7.Back-formation Back-formationisconsidered tobe theopposite processof suffixation.Itsthemethod ofcreatingwordsbyremoving thesupposed suffixes,greed fromgreedy（专有名词转成法）
8.Words FromProper Name（（人名）-（瓦特，Names ofpeople,places,book,and tradenamese.g.:sir wattsiemens watt电功率单位）Chapter5Word Meaning（意义的意义）The meaningsof Meaning（所｝^）:Reference It is the relationshipbetweenlanguage andtheword.It is the arbitraryandconventional.Itisa kindof abstraction,yet withthe helpof context,it canrefer tosomethingspecific.（概念）（认）Concept:which isbeyond language,is the result ofhuman cognitioniR,reflectingthe objectiveworld inthe humanmind.（意义）Sense:It denotestherelationshipinside thelanguage.The senseofanexpression isitsplace ina systemofsemanticrelationships withother expressionsinthelanguage/）Motivations^:It accountsforthe connection betweenthe linguisticsymbol anditsmeaning.）（才以声理据）1Onomatopoeic motivation:words whosesounds suggesttheir meaning,forthese wordswere createsby imitatingthe naturalsounds ornoises.Knowing thesounds ofthewords meansunderstanding themeaning.E.g.:bang,ping-pong,ha ha,）（形态理据）2Morphological motivation:multi-morphemic wordsandthemeaning ofmany are,例夕卜the sumtotal ofthe morphemescombines.E.g.:airmail,miniskirt blackmarket,ect.）（词义理据）:3Semantic motivationreferstothe mentalassociations suggestedby theconceptualmeaning ofaword.It explainstheconnectionbetweentheliteral senseand（）figurative senseoftheword.E.g:the footofthemountain foot）（词源理据）4Etymological motivation:the historyoftheword explainsthemeaningoftheword.E.g:pen-feather（词义的类别）（语;去意义）Types ofmeaning l.Grammatical Meaning:indicates the（）grammatical conceptor relationshipsbecomes importantonly inactual context（词汇意义）
2.Lexical Meaning（）Lexical meaningand grammaticalmeaning makeuptheword-meaning内容（概念意义）Lexical meaninghas2components Conceptual meaningandassociative（关联意义）meaning）（概念意义）（外延意义）1Conceptualmeaningalso knownas denotativemeaning isthemeaning giveninthedictionary andformsthecore ofword-meaning.）（关联意义）:2Associative meaning isthesecondary meaningsupplemented tothe conceptualmeaning.[4types:（）（内;函意义）:1Connotative theovertones orassociations suggestedby theconceptual（例如母亲常常与爰如关怀温柔’meaning,traditionally knownas connotations.联络起来）（）（文体意义）2Stylistic:many wordshave stylisticfeatures,which makethem appropriatefordifferent contexts.（）（感青意义）3Affective I:indicates thespeakers attitudetowards theperson or.这种情感价值观分两类褒义和贬义thing inquestion appreciativepejorative（）（搭酉己意义）4Col locative:isthepartoftheword-meaning suggestedby thewordsbefore orafter theword indiscussion.]（语义关系和语义场）Chapter6—Sense relationand semanticfield（多义关系）Polysemy（多义关系的两种研究措施）Two approachedto polysemy（历时措施）:l.diachronic approachfromthediachronic pointof view,polysemy isassumed tobetheresultof growthand developmentofthesemanticstructureofoneand sameword.Firstmeaning isthe primary meaning,the latermeaningsarecalled derived meanings.（共日用昔施）:
2.synchronic approachsynchronically,polysemy isviewed asthe coexistence基本意义是of variousmeaningsofthesameword ina certainhistorical periodoftime.central次要意义是meaning,derivedmeaning.（词义的两种发展类型）:Two processesof development（辐射型）
1.radiation:isasemantic processinwhich the primarymeaning standsat thecentre（）andthesecondary meaningsproceed outof itin everydirection likerayes.e.g:face,neck（连锁型）
2.concatenation:isthesemantic processinwhichthemeaningofawordmove graduallyaway fromits firstsense bysuccessive shiftsuntil there isnota signofconnection betweenthe sensethatisfinally developedand thatwhichtheterm hadatthe（）beginning.e.g:treacle
3.In radiation,each ofthe derivedmeaning isdirectly connectedtotheprimarymeaning.Inconcatenation,each ofthe latermeaningisrelated onlytothepreceding onelike chains.Though thelatest sensecanbetraced backtotheoriginal,thereisno directconnection inbetween.
4.They areclosely related,being differentstages ofthe developmentleading topolysemy.Generally,radiation precedesconcatenation.In manycases,the twoprocesses worktogether,complementing eachother.（同形同音异义关系）Homonymy:words differentinmeaningbut eitheridentical bothin soundandspelling oridentical only in soundorspelling.（同音同形异义关系的类别）Types ofhomonyms）（完全同音同形异义词）1Perfect homonyms:words identicalbothin sound andspelling,butdifferent inmeaning.）（同形异义词）2Homographs:words identical onlyin spelling,but differentin soundand（最多最常见）meaning.）（同音异义词）3Homophones wordsidenticalonlyinsoundbut differentinspellingandmeaning.（同形同音异义词的来源）Origins ofhomonyms）（）1changeinsoundandspelling:eare-ear,lang-long,langian-long）（）2borrowing feria-fair,beallu-ball,baller-ball）（缩略）（）3Shortening ad-advertisement,（同音同形异义词和多义词的区别）The differentiationof Homonymsfrom Polysemes）l Thefundamental difference:Homonymy refersto differentwords whichhappen toshare thesameformandpolysemy arethe oneand samewordwhichhas severaldistinguishablemeanings.。
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