营销策略分析外文文献翻译

军橐文专外文丈故及其年稿题目德芙巧克力在中国市场的营销策略分析姓名_____________谢谢_______________________学号_________学06938046_________________专业班级工商管理0696班_________________所在学院集美大学诚毅学院_________________指导教师（职称）黄彩云二壹年五月十日consumers ateach stageof thisjourney,ifs theonly factorthat ranksamongthe threebiggest consumerinfluencers atevery step.Its alsothe mostdisruptive factor.Word of mouth canprompt a consumer to consider abrandor productin a way thatincremental advertisingspending simplycannot.Ifs alsonot a one-hitwonder.The right messages resonateand expandwithin interestednetworks,affecting brandperceptions,purchase rates,and marketshare.The riseof online communities andcommunicationhas dramaticallyincreased the potential forsignificant andfar-reachingmomentum effects.In themobile-phone market,for example,we haveobserved that thepass-on ratesfor keypositive andnegative messages can increasea companysmarket shareby as muchas10percent orreduce itby20percent overa two-year period,all otherthingsbeing equal.This effectalone makesa casefor moresystematically investigatingandmanaging word of mouth.Understanding word of mouthWhileword of mouth isundeniably complexand has a multitudeof potentialorigins andmotivations,we haveidentified three forms of word of mouth thatmarketers shouldunderstand:experiential,consequential,and intentional.ExperientialExperiential word of mouth is the most common and powerful form,typically accountingfor50to80percent of word-of-mouth activityin anygiven productcategory.It resultsfrom aconsumersdirect experiencewith a product or service,largely whenthat experiencedeviatesfrom whafsexpected.Consumers rarelycomplain aboutor praisea companywhen theyreceivewhat theyexpect.Complaints when airlines loseluggage areclassic exampleofexperiential word of mouth,which adverselyaffects brandsentiment and,ultimately,equity,reducing bothreceptiveness totraditional marketingand the effect ofpositive word of mouthfromother sources.Positive word of mouth,on theother hand,can generatea tailwindfor aproduct orservice.ConsequentialMarketing activitiesalso cantrigger word of mouth.The mostcommon iswhat we callconsequential word of mouth,which occurswhen consumersdirectly exposedto traditionalmarketingcampaigns passon messagesabout themor brandsthey publicize.The impactofthose messageson consumersis oftenstronger thanthe directeffect of advertisements,because marketingcampaigns thattrigger positive word of mouth havecomparatively highercampaignreach andinfluence.Marketers need toconsiderboth thedirect and the pass-oneffects of word of mouth whendetermining themessage andmedia mixthat maximizesthereturn on their investments.IntentionalA lesscommon formof word of mouth is intentional-for example,when marketersusecelebrity endorsementsto triggerpositive buzzfor productlaunches.Few companiesinvest ingeneratingintentional word of mouth,partly becauseits effectsare difficultto measureandbecause manymarketers areunsure if they cansuccessfully executeintentional word of-mouthcampaigns.What marketersneed for all threeforms ofword of mouth is a way to understandandmeasure itsimpact andfinancial ramifications,both goodand bad.Word-of-mouth equityAstarting pointhas beento countthe number of recommendationsand dissuasionsfor agivenproduct.Theres anappealing powerand simplicityto this approach,but alsoa challenge:its difficultfor marketersto accountfor variabilityin the power ofdifferent kinds ofword-of-mouth messages.After all,aconsumeris significantlymore likely to buy a productas aresultof arecommendation madebyafamily memberthan bya stranger.These twokindsof recommendations constitutea singlemessage,yet thedifference in theirimpact on the receiversbehavior isimmense.In fact,our researchshows thata high-impactrecommendation-from atrusted friendconveying arelevant message,for example—is upto50times morelikely totrigger apurchase thanis alow-impact recommendation.To assessthe impactof thesedifferent kindsofrecommendations,we developedawaytocalculate what we callword-of-mouth equity.It representsthe averagesales impactof abrandmessage multipliedby thenumber ofword-of-mouth messages.By lookingatthe impact—aswell asthe volume—of thesemessages,this metriclets amarketer accuratelytest theireffecton salesand marketshare forbrands,individual campaigns,and companiesas awhole.Thatimpact—in otherwords,the abilityof anyone word of-mouth recommendationor dissuasiontochange behavior—reflects whatis said,who saysit,and whereit issaid.It alsovaries byproductcategory.Whafs saidis the primary driverofword-of-mouth impact.Across mostproduct categories,wefound that the contentofa message mustaddress importantproductorservice featuresif it is toinfluenceconsumer decisions.In themobile-phone category,for example,design ismoreimportant thanbattery life.In skincare,packaging andingredients createmore powerfulwordof mouththan doemotional messagesabout howa productmakes peoplefeel.Marketers tendtobuild campaignsaround emotionalpositioning,yet wefound thatconsumers actuallytend totalk—and generatebuzz—about functionalmessages.The secondcritical driveris theidentity of the personwho sendsamessage:the word-ofmouth receivermust trustthe senderand believethat heor shereally knowsthe productorservice inquestion.Our researchdoes notidentify ahomogenous groupof consumers who areinfluentialacross categories:consumerswho know carsmight influencecar buyersbut notconsumersshopping forbeauty products.About8to10percent of consumers arewhatwecallinfluentials,whose commonfactor istrust andcompetence.Influentials typicallygenerate threetimes more word-of-mouth messagesthan noninfluentialsdo,and eachmessage hasfourtimes moreimpact ona recipientspurchasing decision.About1percent of these peoplearedigital influentials—most notably,bloggers—with disproportionatepower.Finally,the environmentwhere word of mouthcirculates is crucial to thepower of messages.Typically,messages passedwithin tight,trusted networkshave lessreach butgreater impactthanthose circulatedthrough dispersedcommunities—in part,because theresusually ahighcorrelation betweenpeople whoseopinions wetrust and the membersof networkswe mostvalue.Thafs whyold-fashioned kitchentable recommendationsand theironline equivalentsremainso important.After all,a personwith300friends onFacebook mayhappily ignoretheadvice of290of them.Ifs thesmall,close-knit networkof trustedfriends thathas therealinfluence.Word-of-mouth equityempowers companiesby allowingthem tounderstand word ofmouth5s relativeimpact on brand and product performance.While marketers have alwaysknownthat theimpact can be significant,they may be surprisedto learnjust howpowerful itreallyis.When ApplesiPhone waslaunched in Germany,for example,its shareofword-of-mouth volumein themobile-phone category—or howmany consumerswere talkingabout it-was about10percent,orathird less than thatof themarket leader.Yet the iPhone hadlaunchedin othercountries,andthebuzz accompanyingthose messagesinGermanywasabout five times morepowerful thanaverage.This meantthe iPhonesword of-mouth equityscorewas30percent higherthan thatofthemarket leader,with threetimesmoreinfluentialsrecommending the iPhone overleading handsets.As aresult,sales directlyattributable to thepositive wordof mouthsurrounding theiPhone outstrippedthose attributableto Applespaidmarketing six-fold.Within24months oflaunch,theiPhonewas sellingalmost onemillion unitsayear inGermany.The flexibilityofword-of-mouth equityallows usto gaugethe word-of-mouth impactofcompanies,products,and brandsregardless ofthe categoryor industry.And becauseitmeasures performancerather thanthe sheer volume ofmessages,it can be usedto identifywhafsdriving—and hurting—word-of-mouth impact.Both insightsare criticalif marketersare toconvertknowledge intopower.Harnessing wordof mouthTherewards ofpursuing excellencein word-of-mouth marketingare huge,and itcan deliverasustainable andsignificant competitiveedge fewother marketingapproaches canmatch.Yetmany marketersavoid it.Some worrythat itremains immatureas amarketing disciplinecomparedwith thehighly sophisticatedmanagement of marketing inmedia such as televisionandnewspapers.Others areconcerned that they can5t drawon extensivedata orelaboratemarketing toolsfine-tuned overdecades.For thoseunsure aboutactively managing wordofmouth,consider this:the incrementalgain fromoutperforming competitorswith superiortelevisionads,for example,is relativelysmall.Thafs becauseall companiesactively managetheirtraditional marketingactivities andall havesimilar knowledge.With sofew companiesactivelymanaging wordof mouth—the mostpowerfulformofmarketing—thepotentialupsideis exponentially greater.The startingpoint formanagingwordof mouthis understandingwhich dimensionsofword-of-mouth equityare mostimportant toa productcategory:the who,the what,or thewhere.In skincare,for example,its thewhat;in retailbanks,the who.Word-of-mouth equityanalysiscan detailthe precisenature ofa categorysinfluentials andpinpoint thehighest-impactmessages,contexts,and networks.Equipped withthese insights,companies canthen workongenerating positivewordofmouth,using thethreeformswe identified:experiential,consequential,and intentional.Although theimportance ofthese triggersvaries categoryby category,experiential sourcesare the mostimportant acrossthem.Harnessing experientialwordofmouthisfundamentallyabout providingcustomers withthe opportunityto sharepositive experiencesand makingthestory relatableand relevantto theaudience.Some companies,such asMiele andLego,buildbuzz aroundproducts beforelaunch andwork tohave early,highly influentialadopters byinvolvingconsumers inproduct development,supported byonlinecommunities.Consistentlyrefreshing theproduct experiencealso helpsharness experientialwordofmouth-consumersare morelikely to talk abouta productearly inits lifecycle,which iswhy productlaunches orenhancementsare socrucial togenerating positivewordofmouth.Buzz alsocanbesustainedafter launch:Apple hasmaintained interestin andexcitement about theiPhonevia itsappsstore,as constantlyevolving anduser-generated contentmaintains positivewordofmouth.Most companiesactively usecustomer satisfactioninsights whendeveloping newproductsand services.Yet asatisfied customerbase maynot beenough tocreate buzz.To createpositivewordofmouth thatactually hasimpact,the customerexperience mustnot onlydeviatesignificantly fromexpectations but also deviateonthedimensions thatmatter tothe customerand that heor sheis likely totalkabout.For instance,while batterylife isa crucialdriver ofsatisfactionfor mobile-handset consumers,they talkaboutitlessthanother productfeatures,such asdesign andusability.To turnconsumers into an effectivemarketing vehicle,companiesneed tooutperform onproduct andservice attributesthat haveintrinsic word-of-mouthpotential.Managing consequentialwordofmouth involvesusing theinsights providedby word-ofmouth equityto maximizethe returnon marketingactivities.By understandingthe wordof-mouth effectsoftherange ofchannels andmessages employedand allocatingmarketingactivities accordingly,companies canequip consumers to spreadmarketing messagesanddrive theirreach andimpact.In fact,McKinsey researchshows thatmarketing-inducedconsumer-to-consumer wordofmouthgenerates more than twicethe salesof paidadvertisingin categoriesas diverseas skincareand mobilephones.Two thingssupercharge thecreation ofpositive consequentialwordofmouth:interactivityand creativity.They areinterrelated,and particularlyimportant forbrands inrelativelylow-innovation categoriesthat oftenstruggle togain consumerattention.One exampleof acompanysuccessfully harnessingthis poweris theUK confectionerCadbury,whose Glassanda HalfFull“advertising campaignused creative,thoughtful,and integratedonline andtraditional marketing tospur consumerinteraction andsales.The campaignbegan witha televisioncommercial featuringa gorillaplaying drumsto aniconicPhil Collinssong.The bizarrejuxtaposition wasan immediatehit.The conceptsoengaged consumersthat theywere willing to goonline,view thecommercial,and createamateurversions oftheir own,triggering atorrent ofYouTube imitations.Within threemonthsof theadvertisements appearance,the videohad beenviewed more than sixmillion timesonline,year-on-year salesof CadburysDairy Milkchocolate hadincreased bymorethan9percent,andthe brands positiveperception among consumers hadimproved byabout20percent.Intentional word-of-mouth campaignsrevolve aroundidentifying influentialswho becomebrandandproductadvocates.Of course,companies can5t preciselycontrol whatconsumerstell others.But ambitiousmarketers canuse word-of-mouth equityinsights toshift fromconsequentialto intentionalcampaigning.The typeof campaignthat companieschoose toadopt dependsonthedegree towhichmarketers canfind andtarget influentials.Marketers capableof undertakingone-to-onemarketing—suchasmobile-phone operators—are uniquelypositioned toexecute controlledandeffective intentionalword-of-mouth campaigns.Mobile carriershave granularcustomerdata thatcan preciselylocate influentialswhoknowthe category,talk tomany people,andprovide themwith trustedopinions.That meansmessagescanbe directedat specificindividualswho aremost likelyto spreadpositivewordofmouththrough theirsocial networks.As amessage spreads,thisapproachgenerates anexponential word-ofmouthimpact,similarto theripple effectwhenapebble isdropped ina pond.Companies unableto targetinfluentials preciselymust takea differentapproach.While RedBull,for example,can5t sendtext messagesto specificconsumers,it hassuccessfully deployedscienceto orchestrateeffective intentionalword-of-mouth campaigns.After identifyinginfluentialsamong itsdifferent targetsegments,the energy-drink companyensures thatcelebritiesand otheropinion makersseed the rightmessagesamongconsumers,often throughevents.While itcan5t besure whowill attend,Red Bullknows thatthose whodo will be thekindsofconsumersit seeks-andthatthe positivemessages theywill relayacross theirownsocial networkscan generatea superiorreturn forits marketinginvestment.Marketers have always beenaware oftheeffectofwordofmouth,and there is clearlyan arttoeffective word-of-mouth campaigning.Yet thescience behindword-of-mouth equityhelpsreveal howto honeand deploythat art:it showswhich messagesconsumers arelikelytopasson andtheimpactof thosemessages,allowing marketersto estimatethe tangibleeffect wordofmouth hasonbrandequity andsales.These insightsare essentialfor companiesthat wanttoharness thepotential ofwordofmouth andto realizehigher returnson theirmarketinginvestments.衡量口碑营销的新方法了解口碑口碑无疑颇为复杂，并拥有多种可能的根源和动机，而我们则确定了营销者应该了解的三种形式的口碑经验性口碑、继发性口碑，以及有意识口碑经验性口碑经验性口碑是最常见、最有力的形式，通常在任何给定的产品类别中都占到口碑活动的50%〜80%它来源于消费者对某种产品或服务的直接经验，在很大程度上是在经验偏离消费者的预期时所产生的（当产品或服务符合消费者的预期时，他们很少会投诉或表扬某一企业）航空公司丢失行李引起的投诉，是经验性口碑的典型例子，它会对品牌感受产生不利影响，并最终影响品牌价值，从而降低受众对传统营销活动的接受程度，并有损出自其他来源的正面口碑的效果反过来，正面的口碑则会让产品或服务顺风满帆继发性口碑营销活动也会引发口碑传播最常见的就是我们所称的继发性口碑当消费者直接感受传统的营销活动传递给他们的信息或所宣传的品牌时形成的口碑这些消息对消费者的影响通常比广告的直接影响更强，因为引发正面口碑传播的营销活动的覆盖范围以及影响力相对来说都会更大营销者在决定何种信息及媒体组合能够产生最大的投资回报时，需要考虑口碑的直接效应以及传递效应有意识口碑不像前两种口碑形式那么常见的另一种口碑是有意识口碑——例如，营销者可以利用名人代言来为产品发布上市营造正面的气氛对制造有意识口碑进行投资的企业是少数，部分原因在于，其效果难以衡量，许多营销商不能确信，他们能否成功地开展有意识口碑的推广活动对于这三种形式的口碑，营销商都需要以适当的方式从正反两个方面了解和衡量其影响和财务结果口碑价值计算价值始于对某一产品的推荐及劝阻次数进行计数这种方法有一定的吸引力并且比较简单，但是也存在一大挑战营销商难以解释说明不同种类的口碑信息的影响可变性显然，对于消费者来说，由于家人的推荐而购买某产品的可能性要显著高于陌生人的推荐这两种推荐可以传达同样的信息，而它们对接收者的影响却不可同日而语事实上，我们的研究表明，影响力高的推荐（例如，来自于所信任的朋友传达的相关信息）导致购买行为的可能性，是低影响力推荐的倍50为了评估这些不同种类的推荐的影响，我们开发了一种方法来计算我们所说的口碑价值，它用一条品牌信息的平均销售影响力来乘以品牌信息的数量这个指标既考查这些信息的影响力，也考查其总量，可以让营销者准确地测试这些信息对品牌、单项推广活动以及整个企业的销售和市场份额的影响这种影响（也就是任何口头推荐或劝阻能够改变购买行为的能力）反映了信息所涉及的内容、何人传递的信息、以及在何地所说这种影响会因产品类别而异信息所传递的内容是口碑产生影响力的首要推动因素我们都发现，在多数产品类别中，如果要影响消费者的决策，信息的内容必须针对产品或服务的重要特性和功能例如，在手机类产品中，设计比电池寿命更重要在皮肤护理产品中，关于包装和成份构成的口碑比有关产品为人们带来的感觉这类情感信息更有影响力营销商往往围绕情感定位来营造推广活动，然而，我们发现，消费者实际上倾向于对功能信息进行讨论并形成口碑第二个关键推动因素是信息传递者的身份口碑接收者必须信任传递者并相信他或她真的了解所说的产品或服务我们的研究并未发现一个在各类产品中都具有影响力的同质消费者群体了解汽车的消费者可能对购车者有影响力，但是,不能影响购买美容产品的消费者大约有的消费者属于我们所说的有影响力的人，他们的8%~10%共同特征是可信和施加影响的能力有影响力者形成的口碑信息，通常是无影响力者的三倍，其每条信息对接收者购买决策的影响力通常是无影响力者的四倍在这些人中，大约有是通过数字技术发挥影响力，最引人注意的是博客写手，其影响力极1%其巨大最后，传播口碑的地域环境对于信息的影响力至关重要与通过分散的社区传播相比，在彼此信任、关系密切的圈子中传播的信息覆盖范围通常较小，但影响力较大，部分原因在于，我们信任其意见的人与我们所重视的圈子的成员，通常存在密切的关联性正是由于这个原因，在餐桌上提供推荐意见的传统方式，以及与之类似的在线方式，现在仍很重要毕竟,上有名好友的人，可能会轻而易举地忽略Facebook300其中人的意见真正能够产生影响力的，是彼此信任的朋友组成的关系紧密的小290圈子口碑价值能够让企业了解口碑对于品牌和产品的市场表现产生的相对影响力虽然营销商一直都知道这种影响可能会非常大，但是，一旦他们真正了解了这种影响力有多大能耐后，他们或许还是会大吃一惊例如，当苹果公司的在德国推出时，iPhone其在手机产品中所占的口碑数量份额（或者说多少消费者在谈论这种手机）大约为10%,比市场领先产品少三分之一但是，也在其他国家推出，在德国传递的这些信iPhone息，其口碑影响力是平均水平的五倍这就意味着的口碑价值分数比市场领iPhone先产品高出推荐的有影响力者是推荐市场领先手机者的三倍结果，有30%,iPhone关的正面口碑而产生的直接销售量，是苹果公司付费营销活动所产生的销售iPhone量的六倍在推出个月后，在德国的销量几乎达到一年一百万部24iPhone口碑价值所具有的灵活性让我们能够衡量它对企业、产品和品牌的影响，而不论其所在的产品类别或行业如何不同由于它衡量的是市场表现，而不仅仅是信息的数量，因而可用来分辨是何种因素推动或损害着口碑影响力营销商要将知识转化为力量，这两点洞见都至关重要控制和利用口碑的威力在口碑营销中追求卓越会带来巨大的回报，可以带来可持续的重大竞争优势，很少有其他营销方法可以匹敌然而，许多营销商却没有这样做有些人担心，与诸如电视和报纸这种媒体中高度发达的营销管理相比，这种方式作为一个营销学科还不成熟还有些人担心，他们无法动用广泛的数据或精心调整经过数十年锤炼的营销工具那些对积极管理口碑感到没有把握的人，请考虑这一点通过出色的电视广告（比如说）胜过竞争对手而产生的累积性收益相对较小这是因为，所有企业都会积极管理其传统营销活动，并且都拥有类似的知识由于积极管理口碑这种最有力的营销形式的企业如此之少，其潜在的收益则会大得多管理口碑需要从了解口碑价值开始即口碑价值的哪些方面——何人、何物,还是何地——对某一产品类别最为重要例如，对于皮肤护理，关键是“何物”；对于零售银行，关键是“何人”口碑价值分析可详细阐明某一类别中有影响力者的确切性质，并重点指出影响力最大的信息、背景和圈子企业掌握了这些真知灼见，就可以运用我们发现的三种形式经验性、继发性和有意识口碑，努力形成正面影响力尽管这些诱发因素的重要性因产品类别不同而各异，但经验性口碑对各个产品类别都是最重要的从根本上说，利用经验性口碑就是要为消费者提供机会以分享正面的经验，并让其经历在受众中引起共鸣诸如和等企业，在产品推出之Miele Lego前就围绕其营造口碑，并通过在线社区的支持让消费者参与产品开发过程，从而形成具有很高影响力的早期采用者不断刷新产品体验也有助于利用经验性口碑——消费者在产品生命周期的早期对其进行谈论的可能性较大；正是由于这个原因，产品的推出或产品的改进对于形成正面的口碑至关重要企业也可以在产品推出之后维持口碑苹果公司通过其应用软件商店维持对于的兴趣以及兴奋感，不断变化的、由用iPhone户创建的内容帮助保持了正面口碑的不断传播多数企业在开发新产品和服务时都积极运用关于客户满意度的深入见解然而，满意的客户群可能不足以形成口碑要形成具有实际影响力的正面口碑，客户体验不仅要显著高于期望，而且还要在客户所重视的以及他或她可能谈论的方面高于期望例如，虽然电池寿命对于手机消费者来说是关键的满意度驱动因素,但是，它们谈论这一因素的频率却少于设计和易用性等其他产品特性要将消费者转变为有效的营销载体，企业需要在具有内在口碑潜力的产品和服务属性方面表现出色管理继发性口碑需要运用口碑价值概念所提供的深入见解，以最大限度地提高营销活动的回报企业通过了解所运用的各种渠道和信息产生的口碑效应并相应地分配营销资源，可以让消费者传播其营销信息并提高其覆盖范围和影响力事实上，麦肯锡的研究表明，在诸如皮肤护理和手机这样的多样化产品中，营销活动诱发的消费者之间的口碑所创造的销量是付费广告的两倍有两个因素有助于推动创造正面的继发性口碑互动性和创造性这两个因素相互关联，它们对于创新性相对较低、通常难以引起消费者注意的类别的品牌尤为重要企业成功运用这一做法的一个案例是英国糖果制造商吉百利其“一杯半”Cadbury,的广告活动周密且颇具创造性地整合了在线及传统营销，推动了消费者互动和销售该推广活动由一则电视广告开局，画面上是一个大猩猩在击鼓演奏菲尔•柯林斯的标志性歌曲这两个因素怪异地并置在一起产生了立竿见影的冲击性效果这一概念打动了消费者，他们愿意在线浏览该广告，并制作了自己的业余版本，这引发了消费者在上的模仿热潮广告上线不到三个月，视频的在线浏览量便已超过YouTube了万次，吉百利牛奶巧克力年销量增加了以上，该品牌在消费者中的正面认6009%知度提高了大约20%o有意识的口碑推广的核心在于确定具有品牌和产品倡导者影响力的人当然，企业不能准确地控制消费者向他人讲述的内容；但是，志存高远的营销商可运用有关口碑价值的深入见解，从继发性口碑推广转向有意识口碑的推广活动企业可选择的推广活动的类型，取决于营销商可以在多大程度上发现并锁定有影响力的人能够进行一对一营销的营销商例如手机运营商拥有得天独厚的优势，可实施有效的、便于操控的有意识口碑推广手机运营商拥有精确的客户数据，可以准确地确定有影响力的人，这些人了解相应产品、会告诉许多人并为其提供他们愿意相信的意见这就意味着，可以将信息发送给那些最有可能通过其社交网络传播正面口碑的特定个人随着信息的传播，这一方法可产生巨大的口碑影响，类似于一石击起千层浪的涟漪效应无法准确地确定有影响力的人的企业，必须采用另外的方法例如，尽管红牛并不能向特定的消费者发短信，它却成功地运用科学知识组织了有效的有意识口碑推广活动该能量饮料企业在确定了不同目标细分市场中的有影响力者之后，确信名人及其他意见领袖通常可通过搞活动的方式传递恰当的信息尽管红牛不能确保何人将出席活动，但是，它知道出席者就是它要寻找的那类消费者，并且他们在自己的社交网络中传递的正面信息可以为企业的营销投资带来出色的回报营销者一直都了解口碑的效果，设计有效的口碑推广活动显然有其诀窍然而，口碑价值背后的科学道理，却帮助揭示了如何磨砺并运用这一艺术它展示了消费者可能传递哪些信息以及这些信息的影响力，让营销者能够估计口碑对品外文文献A marketersguide tobehavioral economicsApirL2010•Ned Welch•McKinsey QuarterlyMarketers have beenapplying behavioral economics-often unknowinglyfor years.A moresystematicapproach canunlock significantvalue.Long beforebehavioral economicshad aname,marketers wereusing it.Three for the priceoftwo offersand extended-payment layawayplans becamewidespread because theyworked-not becausemarketers hadrun scientificstudies showingthat peopleprefer asupposedlyfree incentivetoanequivalent pricediscount orthat peopleoften behaveirrationallywhen thinkingabout futureconsequences.Yet despitemarketings inadvertentleadershipin usingprinciples ofbehavioraleconomics,few companiesuse themin asystematicway.In thisarticle,we highlightfour practicaltechniques thatshould bepart ofeverymarketers toolkit.

1.Make aproducts costless painfulIn almost everypurchasing decision,consumers havethe optionto donothing:they canalwayssave their money foranother day.Thafs whythe marketerstask is not justto beatcompetitorsbut also to persuadeshoppers to part withtheirmoneyin thefirst place.Accordingto economicprinciple,the painof paymentshould beidentical forevery dollarwe spend.Inmarketing practice,however,many factorsinfluence the way consumersvalue adollar andhowmuch painthey feelupon spendingit.Retailers knowthat allowingconsumerstodelay paymentcan dramaticallyincrease theirwillingnessto buy.One reasondelayed paymentswork isperfectly logical:the timevalue ofmoneymakes futurepayments lesscostly thanimmediate ones.But thereisasecond,lessrational basisfor thisphenomenon.Payments,like alllosses,are viscerallyunpleasant.Butemotions experiencedinthepresent—now—are especiallyimportant.Even smalldelays inpaymentcan softenthe immediatesting ofparting withyour moneyand removean importantbarrier to purchase.Another wayto minimizethe painof paymentis tounderstand theways“mentalaccounting“affects decisionmaking.Consumers usedifferent mental accounts formoney theyobtainfrom differentsources ratherthan treatingevery dollarthey ownequally,as economistsbelievethey do,or should.Commonly observedmentalaccountsinclude windfallgains,pocketmoney,income,and savings.Windfall gainsand pocketmoney areusually theeasiest forconsumersto spend.Income is less easyto relinquish,and savingsthemostdifficult ofall.Technology createsnew frontiersfor harnessingmental accountingto benefitbothconsumers andmarketers.A creditcard marketer,for instance,could offera Web-based ormobile-device applicationthat givesconsumers real-time feedbackon spendingagainstpredefined budgetand revenuecategories-green,say,for belowbudget,red forabove budget,牌价值和销量产生and soon.The budget-conscious consumeris likelyto findvalue insuch的实际影响对于希望利用口碑的潜力并实现营销投资更高回报的企业来说，这些真知灼见具有重要意义accounts althoughthey arenot strictlyrational andto concentratespending ona cardthatmakes useof them.This wouldnot onlyincrease the issuers interchangefees andfinancingincome butalso improvetheissuersview ofits customers5overall financialsituation.Finally,ofcourse,such anapplication wouldmake agenuine contributionto theseconsumers desiretolive withintheir means.

2.Harness thepowerofa default optionThe evidenceis overwhelmingthat presentingone optionasa default increasesthe chanceitwillbechosen.Defaults—what youget ifyou dontactively make a choice—work partlybyinstilling aperception ofownership beforeany purchasetakes place,becausethepleasure wederivefrom gainsislessintense thanthe painfrom equivalentlosses.When weregiven“something bydefault,it becomesmore valuedthan itwould havebeen otherwise—andwe aremore loathtopartwith it.Savvy marketerscan harnessthese principles.An Italiantelecom company,for example,increased theacceptance rateof an offer madeto customerswhen theycalled tocancel theirservice.Originally,a scriptinformed themthattheywould receive100free callsif theykepttheir plan.The scriptwas rewordedto say,uWe havealready creditedyour accountwith100calls—how couldyou usethose”Many customersdid notwant togive upfree talktime theyfeltthey alreadyowned.Defaults workbest whendecision makersare tooindifferent,confused,or conflictedtoconsider theiroptions.That principleis particularlyrelevant ina worldthafs increasinglyawashwith choices—adefaulteliminates theneedto make adecision.The default,however,mustalso bea goodchoice formost people.Attempting tomislead customerswill ultimatelybackfireby breedingdistrust.

3.Dont overwhelmconsumers withchoiceWhen adefaultoptionisnt possible,marketers mustbe waryof generating“choiceoverload,n whichmakes consumersless likelyto purchase.Inaclassic fieldexperiment,somegrocery storeshoppers wereoffered thechance to taste aselection of24jams,while otherswereoffered only

6.The greatervariety drewmore shoppersto samplethe jams,but fewmadea purchase.By contrast,although fewerconsumers stoppedtotastethe6jams onoffer,salesfrom thisgroup weremorethanfivetimeshigher.Large in-store assortmentswork againstmarketers inat leasttwo ways.First,these choicesmakeconsumers workharder tofind theirpreferred option,a potentialbarriertopurchase.Second,large assortmentsincrease thelikelihood thateach choicewill becomeimbued with anegative halo一a heightenedawareness thatevery optionrequires youto forgodesirablefeatures availablein someother product.Reducing thenumberofoptions makespeoplelikelier notonly toreach adecision butalsotofeel moresatisfied withtheir choice.

4.Position yourpreferred optioncarefullyEconomists assumethat everythinghas aprice:your willingnessto paymaybehigher thanmine,but eachof ushas amaximum pricewed bewillingto pay.How marketersposition aproduct,though,can changethe equation.Consider theexperience ofthe jewelrystore ownerwhoseconsignment ofturquoise jewelrywasnt selling.Displaying itmore prominentlydidn5tachieve anything,nor didincreased effortsby hersales staff.Exasperated,she gaveher salesmanagerinstructions tomark the lot down“x%”and departedonabuying trip.On herreturn,she foundthatthemanager misreadthe noteand hadmistakenly doubledthe priceof theitems—and soldthelot.2In thiscase,shoppers almostcertainly didntbase theirpurchases onanabsolute maximumprice.Instead,they madeinferences fromthe priceaboutthejewelrysquality,which generateda context-specific willingnesstopay.The powerof thiskind ofrelative positioningexplains whymarketers sometimesbenefit fromofferinga fewclearly inferioroptions.Even ifthey dontsell,they mayincrease salesof slightlybetterproducts thestore reallywants tomove.Similarly,many restaurantsfind thatthesecond-most-expensive bottleof wineis verypopular—and sois thesecond-cheapest.Customers whobuy theformer feelthey aregetting somethingspecial but not goingover thetop.Those whobuy thelatter feelthey aregetting abargain butnot beingcheap.Sony foundthesame thingwith headphones:consumers buythem ata givenprice ifthereisa moreexpensiveoption—butnotiftheyarethemost expensiveoption onoffer.Another wayto positionchoices relatesnot tothe productsa companyoffers buttothewayit displaysthem.Our researchsuggests,for instance,that icecream shoppersin grocerystoreslook atthebrandfirst,flavor second,and pricelast.Organizing supermarketaislesaccording toway consumersprefer tobuy specificproducts makescustomers bothhappierand lesslikelytobase theirpurchase decisionson price—allowing retailersto sellhigher-priced,higher-margin products.This explainswhy aislesare rarelyorganized byprice.For thermostats,by contrast,people generallystart withprice,then function,and finallybrand.The merchandiselayout shouldtherefore bequite different.Marketershavelong beenaware that irrationality helpsshape consumerbehavior.Behavioral economicscan makethatirrationalitymore predictable.Understanding exactlyhowsmall changestothedetails ofanoffercan influencetheway people reactto itiscrucialtounlocking significantvalue—often atvery lowcost.不可或缺的营销四技巧多年来，营销商一直在运用行为经济学，但往往是不自觉地运用一种更系统的做法则能为营销商开发出巨大的价值早在行为经济学成为一门学说之前，营销者就已经在使用它了“买三送一”的招揽和延长付款时间的“先用后付”计划已被商家广泛采用，之所以这样，是因为这些做法很有效，而并不是因为营销商做了什么科学研究，证明了人们更喜欢得到看似免费的奖励，不那么喜欢同等程度的价格折扣，或是证明了人们在考虑将来的后果时常常表现得不理性然而，尽管营销在运用行为经济学原理方面无意间走到了前头，但却很少有商家能够以系统的方法来运用这些原理本文重点介绍了四种实用的营销技巧，它们应成为每一位营销商不可缺少的工具减轻人们花钱买产品时的心痛感

1.几乎在每一项购买决策中，消费者都可以选择不买他们总是可以把钱留下来，改日再买正因为如此，营销商的任务不仅仅是打败竞争对手，而且还要说服购物者从一开始就掏出钱来根据经济学原理，对于我们花出的每一元钱，支付的痛感应该都是同样的剧烈不过，在营销实践中，许多因素会影响人们如何看待一元钱的价值，影响他们在花这一元钱时痛感的程度零售商都知道，让消费者推迟付款的安排能极大地提高买家的购买意愿推迟付款之所以有效，其中的一个原因是非常符合逻辑的金钱的时间价值使得将来付款比立即付款更便宜但这种现象的背后，还有另外一个不是那么理性的原因付款，就像所有其他损失一样，让人本能地觉得不爽但此时此刻的情感体验是极其重要的所以，即使是略微推迟付款，也能减轻马上拿钱出去的那种刺痛感，从而消除阻止人们购买的一个大障碍另一个能够最大程度地减轻付款痛苦的方法是，了解“心理会计”影响购买决策的各种方式消费者会将他们从不同来源获得的钱划分到不同的“心理账户”中，而不是像经济学家认为他们会或应该的那样，平等地看待所拥有的每一元钱常见的“心理账户”有意外之财、零花钱、收入和储蓄等通常，意外之财和零花钱是消费者最容易花出去的钱收入不太容易花出去，而花掉储蓄是最难的技术创造了一些利用“心理会计”的新领域，让消费者和营销商都受益例如,信用卡营销商可以提供一项基于互联网或移动设备的应用，向消费者实时反馈支出与预先确定的预算及收入类别的比较情况，比如说，绿色表示低于预算，红色表示超出预算等等这些账户的设置并不完全符合理性，但对预算十分在意的消费者可能会觉得这类账户很有价值，并且把支出集中在利用这类账户的卡上这样，不仅能增加发卡公司的交易费收入和融资收益，还能让发卡公司更好地了解其客户的总体财务状况当然，这样一项应用程序最终能够为那些希望量入为出的消费者做出真正的贡献利用默认选择的力量

2.有压倒多数的证据表明，如果提供一种选择作为默认选择，会提高这种选择被选中的可能性默认选择是人们不用费心劳神就能得到的选择，它起作用的部分原因在于，让人们在任何购买发生之前产生了一种拥有感，因为我们从收获中得到的快乐没有从等价的失去中感受的痛苦那么强烈当我们被默认地“给予”某样东西时，它就变得比原来没有被“给予”时更有价值，因此，我们更不愿意失去它精明的营销商可以利用这些原理例如，一家意大利电信公司在顾客打电话要取消服务时，却成功地提高了向顾客提供该服务的接受率一开始，顾客会听到一段录音告诉他们说，如果他们继续接受服务，则可获得次免费电话后来，这段录音100改为“我们已经向您的账户赠送次电话，您打算如何使用呢？”结果，许多100顾客不想放弃他们觉得自己已经拥有的免费通话时间当决策者在考虑他们的选择时觉得无所谓、困惑或矛盾时，默认选择最能发挥作用在一个充斥着大量选择的世界里，这个原理尤其有用，一项默认选择可以让人们不必再费力作出决定不过，对大多数人来说，这个默认选择必须是一个好的选择如果试图误导顾客，最后只会适得其反，导致顾客的不信任切勿让选择压垮消费者

3.如果不可能给出一项默认选择，营销商必须警惕“选择超载”，这会降低消费者购买的可能性在一个经典的现场实验中，某家食品店的顾客可以品尝种果酱，24而另一些食品店的顾客只可以品尝种种果酱吸引了更多顾客去品尝，但购买的624人却很少相比之下，虽然停下来品尝种果酱的顾客相对较少,但该群体贡献的销售6额却高出倍以上5店内品种繁多至少在两个方面对营销商不利首先，太多的选择让消费者更难找到自己喜欢的品种，对购买造成潜在阻碍其次，大量的品种会增加每个选择都被“负面光环”笼罩的可能性，“负面光环”是一种被强化的感觉，好像每种选择都会让你放弃一些你想要的而且其他某个产品可以提供的功能减少选择的数量不仅会提高人们做出决定的可能性，而且会让人们对自己的选择感觉更满意精心定位首推品种

4.经济学家认为，每一种东西都有一个价格你的花钱意愿也许比我高，但我们每个人都有一个愿意支付的最高价格然而，营销商定位一个产品的方式却有可能打破这个公式以一家珠宝店老板的经历为例，在她店里寄售的绿松石珠宝卖得不好把这款珠宝放在显著位置也没有起什么作用，销售人员努力推销也无济于事一怒之下，她指示销售经理将这批珠宝的标价降低一半，然后就出门去购物旅行了当她回来时，她发现销售经理看错了她留下的便条，阴差阳错地把价格调高了一倍，结果把这批珠宝都卖掉了在这个例子中，购物者显然不是根据某个绝对的最高价格来购买的相反，他们根据价格来推断珠宝的质量，从而产生特定环境下的一种花钱意愿这种相对定位的力量解释了为何营销商有时候能够从提供几种明显低劣的产品选择中获益即使这些品种卖得不好，但它们可以增加那些稍微好一些产品的销量，而后者正是商店想要卖出去的品种类似地，许多餐馆发现第二贵的瓶装红酒非常受欢迎，还有第二便宜的瓶装红酒也是这样购买前者的顾客觉得自己得到某种特别的东西，但又不至于太过分购买后者的顾客觉得自己买到了便宜货，但又不显得小气索尼公司在耳机产品上也发现了同样的现象如果还有另一种更贵的产品，消费者就会按照特定价格购买这些产品，然而，同样是这种特定价格，如果这些产品是最贵的，消费者就不会购买另一种定位各种选择的方式与企业提供哪些产品无关，而是与产品的陈列方式有关例如，我们的研究表明，食品超市里的冰淇淋购买者首先看品牌，然后看口味，最后才是看价格根据顾客喜欢购买的产品来布置超市的通道，这样不仅让顾客更愉快，而且降低了顾客根据价格来作出购买决策的可能性，从而使商家能够卖出价格和利润更高的产品这解释了为什么货架很少按照商品价格来布置相比之下，人们在购买恒温器时，一般首先看价格，然后是功能，最后看品牌因此，这种商品的布置应采取截然不同的方式营销商很早就知道，消费者的行为受到非理性因素的影响行为经济学能够提高非理性因素的可预测性如果能够确切了解产品细节上的小小变动如何影响人们对它的反应，则往往能够以很低的代价释放出巨大的价值A newwaytomeasure word-ofmouthmarketingApril.2010•Jacques Bughin,Jonathan Doogan,and OleJrgen Vetvik•McKinsey QuarterlyConsumershavealwaysvalued opinionsexpressed directlyto them.Marketers mayspendmillions ofdollars onelaborately conceivedadvertising campaigns,yet oftenwhat reallymakesup aconsumers mindisnotonly simplebutalsofree:a word-of-mouth recommendationfrom atrustedsource.As consumersoverwhelmed byproduct choicestune outthe ever-growingbarrage oftraditionalmarketing,wordofmouth cutsthrough thenoise quicklyand effectively.Indeed,wordofmouthl istheprimaryfactor behind20to50percent ofall purchasingdecisions.Its influenceis greatestwhen consumersare buyingaproductforthefirst timeorwhen productsare relativelyexpensive,factors thattend tomake peopleconduct moreresearch,seek moreopinions,and deliberatelonger thanthey otherwisewould.And itsinfluencew川probably grow:the digitalrevolution hasamplified andaccelerated itsreach tothepoint wherewordofmouthisno longeran actof intimate,one-on-one communication.Today,it alsooperates onaone-to-many basis:product reviewsare postedonline andopinionsdisseminated throughsocial networks.Some customerseven createWeb sitesorblogs topraise orpunish brands.As onlinecommunities increasein size,number,and character,marketershavecome torecognizewordofmouths growingimportance.But measuringand managingitisfar fromeasy.We believethat wordofmouthcanbedissected tounderstand exactlywhat makesiteffective andthat itsimpact canbe measuredusing whatwecallword-of-mouth equityn—anindex ofa brandspower togenerate messagesthat influencethe consumersdecision topurchase.Understanding howand whymessages workallows marketersto crafta coordinated,consistent responsethat reachesthe rightpeople withthe rightcontent intherightsetting.Thatgenerates anexponentiallygreaterimpact onthe productsconsumers recommend,buy,andbecome loyalto.A consumer-driven worldThesheervolumeof informationavailable todayhas dramaticallyaltered thebalance ofpowerbetween companiesand consumers.As consumershave becomeoverloaded,theyhave becomeincreasingly skepticalabout traditionalcompany-driven advertisingandmarketing andincreasingly prefertomakepurchasing decisionslargely independentof whatcompaniestell themabout products.This tectonicpower shifttoward consumersreflects thewaypeoplenow makepurchasingdecisions.2Once consumersmakeadecision tobuyaproduct,they startwithaninitialconsideration setof brandsformed throughproduct experience,recommendations,orawareness-building marketing.Those brands,and others,are activelyevaluated asconsumersgather productinformation froma varietyof sourcesand decidewhich brandtopurchase.Their post-sales experiencethen informstheir nextpurchasing decision.While wordofmouth hasdifferent degreesof influenceon。