唐山市第九中学教学楼设计土木工程毕业设计外文文献翻译6

学号XXXXXXXXXXHEBEI UNITEDUNIVERSITY中英文翻译Abstract设计题目唐山市第九中学教学楼设计学生姓名XXX专业班级土木班X X学院建筑工程学院指导教师XXXXXX年月日2023528钢筋混凝土在每一个国家，混凝土及钢筋混凝土都被用来作为建筑材料很多地区，包括美国和加拿大，钢筋混凝土在工程建设中是主要的结构材料钢筋混凝土建筑的普遍性源于钢筋的广泛供给和混凝土的组成成分，砾石，沙子，水泥等，混凝土施工所需的技能相对简单,与其他形式的建设相比，钢筋混凝土更加经济混凝土及钢筋混凝土用于桥梁、各种地下结构建筑、水池、电视塔、海洋石油勘探建筑、工业建筑、大坝，甚至用于造船业钢筋混凝土结构可能是现浇混凝土结构，在其最后位置建造，或者他们可能是在一家工厂生产混凝土预制件，再在施工现场安装混凝土结构在设计上可能是普通的和多功能的，或形状和布局是奇想和艺术的其他很少几种建材能够提供建筑和结构如此的通用性和广泛适用性混凝土有较强的抗压力但抗拉力很弱因此，混凝土，每当承受荷载时，或约束收缩或温度变化，引起拉应力，在超过抗拉强度时，裂缝开始开展在素混凝土梁中，中和轴的弯矩是由在混凝土内部拉压力偶来抵抗作用荷载之后的值这种梁当出现第一道裂缝时就突然完全地断裂了在钢筋混凝土梁中，钢筋是那样埋置于混凝土中，以至于当混凝土开裂后弯矩平衡所需的拉力由纲筋中产生钢筋混凝土构件的建造包括以被建构件的形状支摸板模型必须足够强大，以至于能够支承自重和湿混凝土的静水压力，工人施加的任何力量都适用于它，具体的手推车，风压力，等等在混凝土的运作过程中，钢筋将被放置在摸板中在混凝土硬化后，模板都将被移走当模板被移走时，支撑将被安装来承受混凝土的重量直到它到达足够的强度来承受自重设计师必须使混凝土构件有足够的强度来抵抗荷、载和足够的刚度来防止过度的挠度变形除此之外，梁必须设计合理以便它能够被建造例如，钢筋必须按构造设计，以便能在现场装配由于当钢筋放入摸板后才浇筑混凝土，因此混凝土必须能够流过钢筋及摸板并完全充满摸板的每个角落被建成的结构材料的选择是混凝土，还是钢材、砌体，或木材，取决于是否有材料和一些价值决策结构体系的选择是由建筑师或工程师早在设计的根底上决定的，考虑到以下因素经济常常首要考虑的是结构的总造价当然，这是随着材料的本钱和安装构件的必

1.需劳动力改变的然而，总投资常常更受总工期的影响，因为承包商和业主必须借款或贷款以便完成建设，在建筑物竣工前他们从此项投资中将得不到任何回报在一个典型的大型公寓或商业工程中，建筑本钱的融资将是总费用的一个重要局部因此，金融储蓄，由于快速施工可能多于抵消增加材料本钱基于这个原因，设计师可以采取任何措施标准设计来减轻削减的本钱在许多情况下，长期的经济结构可能比第一本钱更重要因此，维修和耐久性是重要的考虑因素用于建筑与结构功能适宜的材料钢筋混凝土体系经常让设计师将建筑与结构的功能

2.相结合混凝土被放置在塑性条件下借助于模板和外表加工来造出想要的形状和结构，这是它具有的优势在提供成品楼或天花板外表时，这使得平板或其他形式的板作为受力构件同样，钢筋混凝土墙壁能提供有吸引力的建筑外表，还有能力抵御重力、风力，或地震荷载最后，大小和形状的选择是由设计师而不是由提供构件的标准决定的.耐火性建筑结构必须经受得住火灾的袭击，并且当人员疏散及大火扑灭之时建筑物3仍然保持不倒钢筋混凝土建筑特殊的防火材料及其他构造措施情况下，自身具有「个小时3的耐火极限钢结构或木结构必须采取防火措施才能到达类似的耐火极限.低维护混凝土构件本身比结构钢或木材构件需要更少的维修如果致密，尤其如此，4加气混凝土已经被用于暴露于大气中的外表，如果在设计中已经采取谨慎措施，以提供足够的排水和远离的结构必须采取的特别预防措施是让混凝土接触到盐，如除冰化学品.材料的供给砂、碎石、水泥和混凝土搅拌设备是被非常广泛使用的，以及钢筋比结5构钢更容易运到多数工地因此，钢筋混凝土在偏远地区经常使用另一方面，有一些因素可能会导致选择钢筋混凝土以外的材料这些因素包括低抗拉强度混凝土的抗拉强度是远低于其抗压强度（约）因此，混凝土易经受

1.1/10,裂缝在结构用途时，用钢筋承受拉力，并限制裂缝宽度在允许的范围内来克服不过，在设计和施工中如果不采取措施，这些裂缝可能会有碍观瞻，或可允许水的浸入发生这种情况时，水或化学物质如道路除冰盐可能会导致混凝土的恶化或污染这种情况下,需要特别设计的措施在水支挡结构这种情况下，需要特别的措施和/或预应力，以防止泄漏.支摸建造一个现浇结构包括三个步骤，在钢或木结构的施工中是遇不到的这些都2是支摸、拆摸、安装支撑，直至其到达足够的强度以支承其重量上述每个步骤，涉及劳动力和材料，在其他结构形式中，这是没有必要的每单位重量或量的相对低强度该混凝土抗压强度大约是钢材抗压强度至

3.5而其单位密度大约是钢材密度的因此，一个混凝土结构，与钢结构相比,10%30%o需要较大的体积和较大重量的材料因此，大跨度结构，往往建成钢结构.时间依赖的量的变化混凝土与钢进行大约同样数量的热膨胀和收缩时，有比拟少量4的钢材加热或冷却，因为钢与混凝土相比是一个较好的导体，钢结构比混凝土结构在更大程度上更易受温度变化另一方面，混凝土经历了干缩，如果被抑制，可能会导致变形或开裂止匕外，变形随着时间的推移将趋于增加，由于混凝土在持续的负荷下的徐变，可能会增加一倍几乎在土木工程和建筑的每一个分支中，钢筋混凝土在结构和根底领域内都得到了广泛的使用因此，工程师及建筑师在其整个职业生涯中需要钢筋混凝土设计的根本知识文章的大局部是直接关于组成典型的钢筋混凝土结构的部件如梁、柱和板他们之间的作用、协调一旦这些个别要素的作用被理解，设计师将有能力分析和设计这些元素组成的各种各样的复杂结构，例如地基，建筑物和桥梁由于钢筋混凝土是一个徐变、收缩，并出现裂缝的非匀质材料，它的应力不能由适用于材料强度均匀弹性材料的传统方程推导出的方程准确预测因此，许多钢筋混凝土的设计基于实证，即设计方程和设计方法是基于实验和费时的证明，而不是从理论的提法被完全导出的结果Reinforced ConcreteConcrete and reinforced concrete are used asbuilding materialsin everycountry.In many,including theUnited Statesand Canada,reinforced concrete is adominant structuralmaterial inengineeredconstruction.The universalnature ofreinforced concreteconstruction stemsfrom thewideavailability ofreinforcing barsand theconstituents ofconcrete,gravel,sand,and cement,the relativelysimpleskills required in concreteconstruction,and theeconomy ofreinforced concretecompared tootherforms of construction.Concreteandreinforced concreteareused in bridges,buildings of all sortsundergroundstructures,water tanks,television towers,offshore oilexploration andproductionstructures,dams,and evenin ships.Reinforced concretestructures may be cast-in-place concrete,constructed in their finallocation,or theymay beprecast concreteproduced in a factoryand erectedat the construction site.Concretestructures maybe severeand functionalin design,or theshape andlayout andbe whimsicaland artistic.Few otherbuilding materialsoff thearchitect andengineer suchversatility andscope.Concrete isstrong incompression butweak intension.As aresult,cracks developwhenever loads,or restrainedshrinkage oftemperature changes,give riseto tensilestresses inexcess of the tensilestrength of the concrete.In aplain concretebeam,the momentsabout theneutral axisdue toappliedloads areresisted byan internaltension-compression coupleinvolving tensionin the concrete.Such abeamfails verysuddenly andcompletely whenthe firstcrack forms.In areinforced concretebeam,steel barsare embeddedin the concrete insuch away thatthe tensionforces neededfor momentequilibriumafter theconcrete crackscan bedeveloped in the bars.The construction of areinforced concretemember involvesbuilding afrom ofmold in the shapeof the memberbeing built.The formmust bestrong enoughto supportboth the weight andhydrostaticpressure of the wetconcrete,and anyforces appliedto itby workers,concrete buggies,wind,and soon.The reinforcementis placed in thisform andheld inplace duringthe concretingoperation.After theconcretehas hardened,the forms are removed.As theformsareremoved,props ofshores areinstalledto support theweightof theconcrete untilit hasreached sufficientstrength tosupportthe loads byitself.The designermust proportion a concretemember foradequate strengthto resisttheloadsandadequate stiffnessto preventexcessive deflections.In beammust beproportioned sothat itcan beconstructed.For example,the reinforcementmust bedetailed sothat itcan be assembled in the field,and sincetheconcrete is placedintheform afterthe reinforcementis inplace,theconcretemust beableto flowaround,between,and pastthe reinforcementto fillall partsof theform completely.The choiceof whethera structureshould bebuilt ofconcrete,steel,masonry,or timberdependson theavailability of materials andona number ofvalue decisions.The choiceof structuralsystem ismadeby thearchitect ofengineer earlyinthe design,based onthe followingconsiderations:

1.Economy.Frequently,the foremostconsideration isthe overallconst of the structure.This is,of course,a functionofthe costs ofthe materialsand thelabor necessaryto erectthem.Frequently,however,the overallcost isaffected asmuch ormore by the overallconstruction timesince thecontractorand ownermust borrowor otherwiseallocate moneyto carryout theconstruction andwillnot receivea returnon thisinvestment untilthe building is readyfor occupancy.In atypical largeapartmentof commercialproject,thecostof constructionfinancing willbeasignificant fractionof thetotalcost.As aresult,financial savingsdue torapid constructionmay morethan offsetincreasedmaterial costs.For thisreason,any measuresthe designercan taketo standardizethedesign andforming willgenerally payoff inreduced overallcosts.In manycases thelong-term economyofthe structure maybe moreimportant thanthe firstcost.As aresult,maintenance anddurability areimportant consideration.

2.Suitability ofmaterial forarchitectural andstructural function.A reinforced concrete systemfrequentlyallows the designer tocombine thearchitectural andstructural functions.Concrete hastheadvantage thatit isplacedin a plasticcondition andis giventhe desiredshape andtexture bymeans oftheforms andthe finishingtechniques.This allowssuch elementsad flatplates or other typesof slabstoserve asload-bearing elementswhile providingthe finishedfloor andceiling surfaces.Similarly,reinforced concretewalls canprovide architecturallyattractive surfacesin additionto havingtheability toresist gravity,wind,or seismicloads.Finally,the choiceof sizeof shapeis governedby thedesignerand notbytheavailability ofstandard manufacturedmembers.

3.Fire resistance.The structureinabuilding mustwithstand theeffects ofa fireand remainstandingwhile thebuildingisevacuated andthe fireis extinguished.A concretebuilding inherentlyhasa1-to3-hour firerating withoutspecial fireproofingorotherdetails.Structural steel or timberbuildingsmust befireproofed toattain similarfire ratings.

4.Low maintenance.Concrete membersinherently requireless maintenancethan dostructuralsteel ortimber members.This isparticularly trueif dense,air-entrained concretehas beenused forsurfacesexposed tothe atmosphere,and ifcare hasbeen takeninthedesign toprovide adequatedrainageoff and away fromthestructure.Special precautionsmust betaken forconcrete exposedtosalts suchas deicingchemicals.

5.Availability ofmaterials.Sand,gravel,cement,and concretemixing facilitiesare verywidelyavailable,and reinforcingsteel canbe transportedto mostjob sitesmore easilythan canstructural steel.As aresult,reinforcedconcreteis frequentlyusedinremote areas.On theother hand,there areanumberof factorsthat may cause oneto selecta materialother thanreinforcedconcrete.These include:

1.Low tensilestrength.The tensilestrength concreteis muchlower thanits compressivestrength about1/10,and henceconcreteissubject tocracking.In structuraluses thisis overcomeby usingreinforcementto carrytensile forcesand limitcrack widthsto withinacceptable values.Unless careistaken indesignandconstruction,however,these cracksmaybeunsightly ormay allowpenetration ofwater.When thisoccurs,water orchemicals suchas roaddeicing saltsmay causedeterioration orstainingoftheconcrete.Special designdetails are requiredinsuch cases.In thecase ofwater-retainingstructures,special detailsand/of prestressingarerequiredto preventleakage.

2.Forms andshoring.The constructionofacast-in-place structureinvolves threesteps notencounteredintheconstructionofsteelortimber structures.These aretheconstructionoftheforms theremoval ofthese formsand proppingor shoringthe newconcrete tosupport itsweight untilitsstrength isadequate.Each ofthese stepsinvolves laborand materials,which arenot necessarywithother formsofconstruction.

3.Relatively lowstrength perunit ofweight forvolume.The compressivestrengthofconcrete isroughly5to10%that ofsteel,while itsunit densityis roughly30%that ofsteel.As aresult,a concretestructurerequires alarger volumeandagreater weightofmaterialthan doesa comparablesteelstructure.As aresult,long-span structuresare oftenbuilt fromsteel.

4.Time-dependent volumechanges.Both concreteand steelundergo-approximately thesameamount ofthermal expansionand contraction.Because thereis lessmass ofsteel tobe heatedor cooled,and becausesteel isa betterconcrete,a steelstructure isgenerally affectedby temperaturechanges toagreater extentthan isa concretestructure.On theother hand,concrete undergoesfrying shrinkage,which,if restrained,maycausedeflections orcracking.Furthermore,deflections willtend toincreasewith time,possibly doubling,due tocreep oftheconcreteunder sustainedloads.In almostevery branchof civilengineering andarchitecture extensiveuse ismade ofreinforcedconcrete forstructures andfoundations.Engineers andarchitects requiresbasic knowledgeofreinforced concretedesign throughouttheir professionalcareers.Much ofthis textis directlyconcernedwith thebehavior andproportioning ofcomponents thatmake uptypical reinforcedconcretestructures-beams,columns,and slabs.Once thebehavior ofthese individualelements isunderstood,thedesignerwill havethe backgroundto analyzeand designa widerange ofcomplex structures,suchas foundations,buildings,and bridges,composed ofthese elements.Since reinforcedconcreteisa nohomogeneous materialthat creeps,shrinks,and cracks,itsstresses cannotbe accuratelypredicted bythe traditionalequations derivedinacourse instrength ofmaterialsfor homogeneouselastic materials.Much ofreinforcedconcretedesign intherefore empirical,i.e.,design equationsand designmethods arebased onexperimental andtime-proved resultsinstead ofbeingderived exclusivelyfrom theoreticalformulations.。